Blockchains come in many forms, each solving different problems. Layer 1 blockchains (L1s) like Ethereum, Solana, and Avalanche handle transactions and smart contracts. Some focus on speed, like Aptos and Hedera, while others, like Cosmos and Polkadot, connect multiple networks. Layer 2 solutions (L2s), such as Arbitrum and Optimism, reduce congestion by processing transactions off-chain. Layer 3 blockchains (L3s) take it further, offering specialized rollups for gaming, DeFi, and business needs. Moving assets between blockchains? Cross-chain bridges like Wormhole and Synapse make it happen. Choosing the right network means better security, speed, and flexibility.
Blockchain networks determine the sequence of pending operations through transaction ordering, the process of selecting which transactions enter the next block and in which position. Block producers hold authority over sequence, and position affects execution price, liquidation outcomes and arbitrage profit. Validators on proof-of-stake networks and miners on proof-of-work networks select transactions from the mempool, ...
DeSci (decentralized science) is a broad term for projects and platforms that use blockchain for funding, publication, peer review, and other stages of scientific research. The concept emerged in response to processes that rely on a limited number of institutions and publications. The problems DeSci aims to solve In biomedicine, the “valley of death” refers ...
Introduction and Market Context Interoperability remains one of the unresolved problems in Web3. Ethereum, Cosmos, BNB Chain, Solana and hundreds of other networks operate independently, each with its own consensus rules, signature formats and execution models. Blockchain bridges provide the infrastructure that connects them: they allow a chain C2 to verify that an event occurred ...
A research collaboration among Sei Labs, Mysten Labs, and academic institutions has published Sedna, a user-facing protocol that replaces whole-transaction replication with verifiable, rateless coding for blockchain networks employing multiple concurrent proposer (MCP) consensus. The protocol directly addresses a practical trilemma among censorship resistance, low latency, and reasonable cost that has constrained transaction dissemination in ...
Metaverse development has become a broad category that covers everything from browser-based virtual spaces to large-scale multiplayer environments, immersive training platforms, digital showrooms, social worlds, and blockchain-enabled ecosystems. That breadth creates an obvious problem for companies looking for a development partner: almost every agency that works with 3D technology, virtual reality, blockchain, or interactive applications ...
Atomic swaps enable trustless peer-to-peer cryptocurrency exchanges across different blockchains. The protocol guarantees a binary outcome: either both parties receive their assets or both receive refunds. Three distinct mechanisms have emerged in this domain: Hash Time-Locked Contracts (HTLCs), Point Time-Locked Contracts (PTLCs), and Taproot-enabled PTLCs. Each represents a successive layer of cryptographic optimization, moving contract logic from on-chain scripts ...
Hedera Hashgraph operates a public distributed ledger that does not rely on a blockchain. The network implements a directed acyclic graph (DAG) data structure combined with the Hashgraph consensus algorithm, a combination that distinguishes it from conventional blockchain architectures. This design delivers ~10,000 transactions per second (TPS) on the mainnet with 3–5 second absolute finality, compared to Ethereum’s ~15–30 TPS and ~13-minute ...
Multiple Layer-1 networks are now building infrastructure designed exclusively for autonomous AI agents, eliminating the human from the transaction loop entirely. Neo co-founder Da Hongfei formalized this direction in March 2026 with a strategy document positioning Neo X as a “Humanless Blockchain“. BNB Chain followed in July 2026 with plans for a dedicated Layer-1 targeting ...
EIP-4844 activated in Ethereum’s March 2024 Dencun upgrade, introducing blob transactions as a new data type for Layer 2 rollups. The upgrade created a separate fee market for temporary data blobs, decoupling rollup data availability costs from Ethereum’s execution gas market. Each blob stores approximately 128 KB of data and is pruned after roughly 18 days. The network maintains a target of 3 blobs per ...
zkSync Era implements a custom zero-knowledge virtual machine (zkVM) that diverges from the Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM) bytecode format. Matter Labs selects this design to reduce proving time and lower per‑transaction cost. The approach replaces direct EVM execution with a compilation pipeline that converts Solidity and Vyper source code into zkEVM bytecode. Developers gain faster block finality but incur ...
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