Blockchains come in many forms, each solving different problems. Layer 1 blockchains (L1s) like Ethereum, Solana, and Avalanche handle transactions and smart contracts. Some focus on speed, like Aptos and Hedera, while others, like Cosmos and Polkadot, connect multiple networks. Layer 2 solutions (L2s), such as Arbitrum and Optimism, reduce congestion by processing transactions off-chain. Layer 3 blockchains (L3s) take it further, offering specialized rollups for gaming, DeFi, and business needs. Moving assets between blockchains? Cross-chain bridges like Wormhole and Synapse make it happen. Choosing the right network means better security, speed, and flexibility.
Machine learning crypto trading models ranked cryptocurrency price extrema accurately, yet lost money as Binance Spot trading policies. Researcher Ayoub Jadouli of Abdelmalek Essaâdi University audited candle-based timing models and recorded negative net results after assumed transaction costs in every executable test. All evaluated policies remain NO_TRADE. Ranking power and policy returns diverge Jadouli trained ...
A paper published in November 2025 by Hamoon Soleimani concludes Bitcoin as money faces structural barriers beyond price swings. The analysis applies Post-Keynesian and Austrian monetary theory, tests both with econometric data, and classifies Bitcoin as a speculative asset instead of a monetary standard. Monetary Theory Excludes Bitcoin Post-Keynesian economists define money as a debt ...
Solana Alpenglow reaches Solana mainnet on Wednesday, October 21, 2026. The mainnet activation starts at epoch 1064, at approximately 15:00 UTC, according to the Solana Foundation. Anza, the Agave client developer, lists 14:50 UTC. Testnet and devnet completed their migrations in September 2026, after stakers approved proposal SIMD-0326 in a 2025 vote. Epoch start times ...
A comparative study of blockchain consensus mechanisms—including Bitcoin, Ethereum, Ripple, and Tendermint—evaluates peer-to-peer networks, native cryptocurrencies, transaction validation, block creation, consensus protocol design, and application development. Bitcoin relies on proof of work. Miners hash block headers until the result falls below a difficulty target, and full nodes select the chain with the most cumulative work. ...
Researchers at Matter Labs, the University of Toronto, Télécom Paris and Imperial College London mapped in 2023 how decentralized sequencers reshape transaction ordering on Ethereum rollups. Their framework links shared sequencing to maximal extractable value (MEV) and transaction privacy, the two factors that decide who controls order and who profits from it. It defines seven ...
Chain abstraction protocols route cross-chain actions through solver networks instead of manual bridging. A user signs one intent describing the desired outcome, and a solver selects the route, pays gas on the destination chain and collects a fee. The Ethereum Foundation, Hyperlane and Bootnode co-led the Open Intents Framework, and Coinbase Payments joined as a ...
Blockchain networks determine the sequence of pending operations through transaction ordering, the process of selecting which transactions enter the next block and in which position. Block producers hold authority over sequence, and position affects execution price, liquidation outcomes and arbitrage profit. Validators on proof-of-stake networks and miners on proof-of-work networks select transactions from the mempool, ...
DeSci (decentralized science) is a broad term for projects and platforms that use blockchain for funding, publication, peer review, and other stages of scientific research. The concept emerged in response to processes that rely on a limited number of institutions and publications. The problems DeSci aims to solve In biomedicine, the “valley of death” refers ...
Introduction and Market Context Interoperability remains one of the unresolved problems in Web3. Ethereum, Cosmos, BNB Chain, Solana and hundreds of other networks operate independently, each with its own consensus rules, signature formats and execution models. Blockchain bridges provide the infrastructure that connects them: they allow a chain C2 to verify that an event occurred ...
A research collaboration among Sei Labs, Mysten Labs, and academic institutions has published Sedna, a user-facing protocol that replaces whole-transaction replication with verifiable, rateless coding for blockchain networks employing multiple concurrent proposer (MCP) consensus. The protocol directly addresses a practical trilemma among censorship resistance, low latency, and reasonable cost that has constrained transaction dissemination in ...
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